Introduction: The Problem of Translation

While visiting On Loss and Absence: Textiles of Mourning and Survival at the Art Institute of Chicago, I was struck by the delicate appearance of a Xiaoshan lace (萧山花边) piece titled Hexagonal Bridge Pattern (六角茴香旁扶). The work was presented by Rivers Qinnan Zhu, an alum of micro/MACRO Textiles 2022 and the Fiber and Material Studies department at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. After reading through the label and observing this piece, I was confused by one of the elements of information in its Chinese title, written in Simplified Chinese, 茴香, that was not included in the English translation. 

My goal in this research is to better understand Xiaoshan lace and introduce it to English-language audiences. I began from a background in Visual and Critical Studies, where I had been thinking about structuralism, written language, and the relationship between words and meaning. Over time, this interest shifted toward textile construction, material culture, and the ways technical knowledge is carried through language.

Note: Because this research is based primarily on literature review and object observation, and because Simplified Chinese (简体中文) is the main written language used in Xiaoshan today, most Chinese characters in this essay are shown in Simplified Chinese.

What Is Xiaoshan Lace?

Xiaoshan lace was introduced to the Xiaoshan region in 1919 by a Shanghai merchant, Xu Fangqing(徐方卿), who brought several Italian Christian missionaries from Europe to teach local women the techniques of Italian lace-making. Various lace-making techniques were introduced to China during the nineteenth century. Xiaoshan lace is a form of needle lace related to Italian needle lace, especially Venetian lace (Miao & Zhao, 2022). The alternative name of Xiaoshan lace, 万缕丝 (Wanlvsi), is phonically translated from the origin of needle lace in Venice.

Breaking Down the Chinese Title

The Chinese title, 六角茴香旁扶, can be divided into three parts:

The first part (in green), 六角 (pronounced liùjiǎo), refers to a hexagonal form, literally “six angles” or “six corners.” As someone unfamiliar with lacemaking, I was initially confused by the English title Hexagonal Bridge Pattern because the word “bridge” does not appear directly in 六角.  

The second part (in tan), 茴香 (pronounced huéisiang) may be translated as fennel, anise, or star anise, depending on context. However, this Chinese word can be used to describe a variety of other plants, and perhaps this information was not included in the translation to prevent confusion.

The last section (in pink) 旁扶 (pronounced pángfú), is a lace-specific term that may be translated as “pattern,” “point,” or possibly “bridge,” depending on how the term is being used.

Pattern, Point, or Bridge?

On the brochure of Rivers Zhu's 2023 solo exhibition, Tracing With The Thread: Lace On Enclosed Tideland, this pattern was translated differently to “Hexagonal anise point.” In this version of this pattern name, the section, 茴香(huéisiang) was included and translated as anise. This variation also raised questions because anise, also known as aniseed, and star anise are different species from different plant families. (Grant 2021). Aniseed also does not appear to be star-shaped. 

I began by comparing the Hexagonal Bridge Pattern with similar Xiaoshan lace patterns. I also attempted to translate related Xiaoshan lace terms in order to better understand the structure of its technical language. Later, I explored the Chinese word 茴香 from botanical, food culture in and around Xiaoshan, and literary works. By doing this, I tried to determine if adding the information of the Chinese character茴香 is necessary for this piece and potentially propose a new translation.

In the Xiaoshan huabian (lace) Techniques Resource Book created by Rivers in 2021-2022, I found two patterns that may be similar to the hexagonal bridge pattern. The pattern on the left is called 六脚旁扶 (translates to six feet pattern by the author). This pattern has a similar hexagonal structure. The pattern on the right is 茴香旁扶 (translates to star anise pattern by the author). Based on the name and visual comparison, I believe the Hexagonal Bridge Pattern combines elements of both designs: the hexagonal structure of the Six Feet Pattern and the petal-like or radiating structure of the Star Anise Pattern. 

I compared the eight steps(步骤, pronounced Bùzhòu, meaning steps or process) listed in Skill Specification for Xiaoshan Lace(缀、钉、挑、绷、绕、空缀、补、扣) used to describe the steps of making Xiaoshan Lace and tried to find similar words for the needle lace making process proposed by Peter in A Practical Guide to Needle Lace(2019). Some of the steps in Xiaoshan lace are for specific patterns, but most of them are descriptions of standard terms for needle lace, such as Supporting (materials), Cordonnet, Filling, or even Buttonhole stitches.

I then attempted to identify and translate other stitch patterns of the Xiaoshan lace sample at the Textile Resource Center and tried to look for existing needle lace patterns to help with translation. (See Appendix) Most of the patterns do not have similar needle stitch patterns, except basic stitches like buttonhole stitch and several Brussels stitches. This comparison showed me that many Chinese pattern and stitch names are visually descriptive. They often describe how a form looks, while English-language lace terms are more likely to be inherited from French, Italian, or other European lace traditions. Cordonnet, for example, is a French term used to describe a thick cotton or silk thread that is used to outline lace designs. (Textile Resource Center Leiden 2022)

I began to understand that the terminology established for Xiaoshan lace differs significantly from needle lace terminology used in English-language contexts. My research goal is to understand and introduce Xiaoshan lace to English audiences, and I tried my best not to force a narrative but to offer what I found from literature and Rivers’ exhibition statements.

I then tried to understand the distinction between ‘bridge’ and ‘pattern’ in the translated title. Kurella(1998, 14) proposed a framework to understand the structure of lace: Clothwork (Broad dense areas), Outline (Edge treatment), Mesh/Bridges (structures that hold the clothwork motifs together), and Ornaments (Fancy stitches fill in the space between motifs). From this framework, I understand bridges as structures used to connect motifs.

In Rivers’ statement in their solo exhibition(2023), “Pangfu 旁扶 (which translates as “point”), innovated by the Xiaoshan women lacemakers according to the Italian Punto (which means point), appears as bridges in Xiaoshan Huabian (lace) and works to join lace patterns together.” If the names contain 旁扶, the pattern could be used as bridges. In English contexts, the word “point” originated from French, meaning stitch, and it was often used in the name of stitches like “point of Venise”. From my study of the naming of Xiaoshan lace stitch patterns, fundamental stitches would usually be named with 针(pronounced Jhen, meaning needle), but with more complicated stitch patterns would have the name 旁扶 incorporated. 

It is important to note the differences between bridges, 旁扶, and points, since points have other meanings in the lace context, so it makes sense to translate 旁扶 into pattern and add a bridge in the name, so that we know that it acts similarly to bridges but is different from 针.

Why 茴香 Matters

To understand whether 茴香 should remain in the English title, I needed to consider not only its botanical meaning, but also its cultural associations in Chinese food, literature, and everyday language. What fascinated and challenged me about the word 茴香 (huíxiāng) is that it can refer to many different plants. Typically, 茴香 translates as fennel in English. Aniseed and star anise may be referred to as 大茴香 (“big anise”), while fennel is often called 小茴香 (“small anise”).

Some members of the Apiaceae family (the taxonomy of the plants) share related names in Chinese because their seeds, leaves, stems, and aromas can appear or function similarly. (陳念萱 2014). Some of them have a distinctive aroma and can be used to extract anise oil, which is a main flavoring for licorice candies. One of my favorite findings is that Daucus carota, also known as Queen Anne’s Lace or wild carrot, is a part of the Apiaceae family and has delicate lace-like flowers.

A dish in Zhejiang province, where Xiaoshan is located, is star anise-flavored fava bean (茴香豆). The dish is prepared by braising fava beans with cinnamon stick, star anise, and other flavorings. Renowned from a short story 孔乙己 (Kong Yiji) by 魯迅 (Lu Xun), written in 1919, the dish is the main character, Kong Yiji’s favorite. However, Kong Yiji and the mention of the dish was Lu’s attempt to depict and present the miserable, embarrassed life and mental state of an old-fashioned Chinese intellectual, further criticizing the traditional Chinese feudal rituals in a scathing manner(Lu 2024). Incidentally, Xiaoshan lace was also introduced to Xiaoshan in 1919. This overlap suggests that star anise was already part of local food culture when the lace-making technique arrived in the area.

Another common 茴香 dish in Northern China(Xiaoshan is in Southern China) is Pork with dill dumplings (茴香猪肉饺子). Due to the distinct aroma, the 茴香 family is often used for red meat or braising dishes to remove gamey smell or add different flavors.

The old name for 茴香 is 蘹香; both phrases are phonically associated with coming home or homesickness in Chinese(蓝紫青灰, 2018). In Journey to the West, a renowned novel by Wu Cheng'en, 茴香 was used in a poem for one of the main characters to express his success in the journey to return from the west to the Tang Dynasty. I could not help thinking about how Xiaoshan lace also originated from the West, and was amazed by how the Xiaoshan women adapted a part of their daily lives, no matter if it’s food or plants, into the pattern design of Xiaoshan lace.

Toward a New Translation

Star anise can be called 大茴香 or 八角(pronounced Bajiǎo,  translated as eight horns) and other names. In Rivers’ pattern book, there is another Xiaoshan lace pattern mentioned 八角, which is 八角菊花圆子旁扶(translated as Eight-horn chrysanthemums circular pattern). But the pattern has nothing to do with star anise but chrysanthemums!

As I was finishing this inquiry, I found in Kurella’s book, Guide to Lace and Linens(1998),  that mentions “Simple Chinese needle lace doily”. Although the author does not specify the type of lace, I recognize it as Xiaoshan lace. Surprisingly, this lace doily also included a pattern similar to the Hexagonal Bridge Pattern (六角茴香旁扶) mixed with another pattern in the middle of each flower motif.

So now we have several things to take into consideration when we translate things: 

1. Star anise should be included in the name to describe the petal-like details.

2. 旁扶(pronounced Pangfu, translates as Point) can be translated to pattern, but includes a bridge to note its connective nature.

3. Keep the Hexagonal detail.

In conclusion, I propose the translation of the pattern:

When I started this project, I was simply looking for an entry point to research more about star anise, as its ambiguous meaning in Mandarin has been troubling me throughout the research process. However, I was fascinated by the language rabbit hole I’ve gotten myself into when I found out that Queen Anne’s Lace, a plant that is a distant relative of star anise, got its name from the delicate lace-like flowers. 

Reflection

Through this research, I tried to think carefully about Chinese terms without taking their meanings for granted. I wanted to explain what I understood to readers who may not know the language, while also showing that a seemingly simple word, such as the name of a spice, can carry botanical, cultural, historical, and technical meanings. This inquiry has led me to further questions about the relationship between handicraft, trade, imperialism, and language.

Appendix

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Isaac Facio for his generous support, guidance, and wisdom throughout this project. I am also grateful to Jiashun Zhou for helping me access Rivers Zhu’s wonderful work, which became an important part of this research. Thank you to the micro/MACRO ’26 cohort for their kindness, curiosity, and companionship along this fiber journey. I also wish to thank the Chicago Public Library for providing access to the needle lace books that supported and deepened this study.

Bibliography

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Grant, Bonnie L. 2021. “Anise Vs. Star Anise: Are Star Anise and Anise Plants the Same?” Gardening Know How. August 31, 2021. https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/herbs/anise/anise-vs-star-anise.htm.

Herr, Sofia. 2025. “I Taught Myself How to Make Venetian Needle Lace.” Micro/MACRO Textiles. https://www.micromacrotextiles.net/objectstudies/i-taught-myself-how-to-make-venetian-needle-lace.

Kurella, Elizabeth M. 1998. Guide to Lace and Linens. Antique Trader Books.

Lu, Wenjing. 2024. “The Long Shirt and Fennel Bean: The Artistic Charm of the Detail Portrayal in ‘Kong Yiji.’” Advances in Literary Study 12, no. 1: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4236/als.2024.121001.

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Peter, Jaqueline. 2019. A Practical Guide to Needle Lace. Schiffer Publishing.

“RSN Stitch Bank.” n.d. Royal School of Needlework. Accessed May 23, 2026. https://rsnstitchbank.org/.

Stillwell, Alexandra. 1997. Cassell Illustrated Dictionary of Lacemaking. Cassell Publishers.

Willson, Robyn. 2023. “Lace Glossary.” The Textile Eye. January 5, 2023. https://www.thetextileeye.com/resources/lace-glossary.

Zhejiang Association of Small and Medium Enterprises. n.d. “Skill Specification for Xiaoshan Lace [萧山花边产品技术规范].”

Zhu, Rivers Qinnan, and Ating Went. 2023. Tracing with the Thread: Lace on Enclosed Tideland. Exhibition brochure.

蓝紫青灰. 2018. “梦断蘹香.” 豆瓣. August 5, 2018. https://www.douban.com/note/685545927/?_i=9065097DXg863E,9079301DXg863E.

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